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Scientists in the United States have developed a walking robot that requires no electronics and can be produced entirely from a 3D printer.

The robot, built by the Bioinspired Robotics Laboratory at the University of California, San Diego, uses only a cartridge of compressed gas to function.

To construct the robot, the team utilised basic and readily available technology—a standard desktop 3D printer and an off-the-shelf printing material. This method is not only simple and robust but also cost-effective, with each unit costing around $20 to produce.

“This is a completely different way of looking at building machines,” said Michael Tolley, a professor in the UC San Diego Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and the paper’s senior author.

Due to its lack of electronic components, the robot could be deployed in environments where traditional robots might struggle. Potential uses include scientific research in radiation-heavy areas, disaster response, and even space exploration.

Laboratory tests demonstrated that the robot could function continuously for up to three days, provided it remained connected to an air or gas source under constant pressure. Further experiments showed that the robot could walk outdoors using a compressed gas cartridge, successfully traversing different surfaces, including grass, sand, and even underwater.
Developed in collaboration with BASF researchers, the robot is designed to be printed in a single process from a flexible, soft material, avoiding the need for rigid components commonly found in robotic systems.

The primary challenge lay in incorporating artificial muscles and a control mechanism into a single-print design. Leading the research team, Dr Yichen Zhai and colleagues at the UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering adapted a 3D-printing technique previously used to create a gripper devoid of electronics. Their work resulted in a six-legged robot that can walk autonomously.
To enable movement, the researchers developed a pneumatic oscillating circuit that controls the repeated motions of soft actuators—akin to the mechanisms that powered early steam locomotives. The system directs air pressure in a coordinated manner, alternating between two sets of three legs, allowing the robot to walk in a straight line. Each leg moves in four directions—up, down, forward, and backward—giving the robot effective mobility.

The research team is now exploring methods to integrate compressed gas storage within the robot’s body and to use recyclable or biodegradable materials in its construction.

Additionally, they are investigating ways to equip the robots with grippers or manipulators to expand their functionality.

UC San Diego’s collaboration with BASF, through their California Research Alliance (CARA), was instrumental in testing various soft materials for use with standard 3D printers. While some high-end materials are not yet commercially available, the team successfully manufactured the robots using standard off-the-shelf materials.

The project was partially funded by the National Science Foundation, and the 3D-printed walking robot was first presented at the Gordon Research Conference on Robotics in 2022.Their findings have been published in the journal Advanced Intelligent Systems.